Validity and Reliability Matrix Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Validity and Reliability Matrix - Essay Example Validity and Reliability Matrix This form of reliability is used to judge the consistency of results across items on the same test. Essentially, test items that measure the same construct are measured to determine the tests internal consistency. The multiple indicators of a property increase the measure's reliability. Rival hypotheses are ruled out because of the use of range of multiple indicators of the property being studied and measured. This test often helps researchers interpret data and predict the value of scores and the limits of the relationship among variables. A property is measured in several different ways, in which the most typical form for measurement is through questionnaire, and then measures obtained were combined into a single score, hence reliability across different parts of an instrument might be difficult to establish. The measures are specifics of a property which will eventually be collated to reflect a single information. Half of the test items (even numbered) are correlated to other half (odd numbered) to obtain reliability coefficient. This is done by randomly dividing all items that purport to measure the same construct into two sets. The entire instrument is administered to a sample of people and the total score for each randomly divided half is calculated. The split-half reliability estimate is simply the correlation between these two total scores. It only requires a single test administration. It is therefore resources-wise test. Cost and time will be used efficiently. It is limited to estimating differences on one dimension (usually the number of items, or raters). The resultant coefficient will vary as a function of how the test was split. It is also not appropriate on tests in which speed is a factor (that is, where students' scores are influenced by how many items they reached in the allotted time). Test/retest It is an index of score consistency over a brief time period, typically several weeks. It tells how much the individual's normative score is likely to change on near-term retesting. This index of score is obtained by administering the same test twice, with a certain amount of time between administrations, and then correlating the two score sets. Each subject should score different than the other subjects, but if the test is reliable then each subject should score the same in both test. The closer the results, the greater the test-retest reliability of the survey instrument. The test is easy to administer hence, it is the most popular indicator of survey reliability. The consistency of a measure from one time to another is measured and assessed. It assumes that there will be no change in the quality or construct being measured. "It is an excellent measure of score consistency because it allows the direct measurement of consistency from administration to administration" (Lawrence, R. et al, 2001) Administration of test for the second time may produce the "practice effect" - respondents "learn" to answer the same questions in the first test and this affects their responses in the next test. Score change could be caused by day-to-day fluctuation in performance, or the individual's

Gunshot Forensic Analysis

Gunshot Forensic Analysis School of Chemistry MM4EOX: Electron-optical and X-ray Techniques Pages 12: Forensic investigation: trace evidence analysis for gun-shot residue Page 3: Phase identification : characterization of nanostructured materials Page 4: Enviromental safety: characterization of fine scale particle distribution Forensic investigation: trace evidence analysis for gun-shot residue Introduction The ability to identify gunshot residue has provided solution to the problems encountered in the resolution of forensic science, legal medicines, and for shooting distance determination. Visually comparing the casework powder residue pattern on the garment or on the skin of the victim with the pattern obtained from a series of test firings at known distances, using the same gun and ammunition has been used as a method for routinely estimating gunshot range. Burned and unburned powder grains, carbonaceous particles, bullet jacket debris, shaving and dirt have been shown to be examples of materials ejected from the bore of the weapon around the entrance hole of the bullet and have been used as materials for analytical determination in order to obtain a more and accurate result.1 An issue that has become very important in criminal investigation is trace evidence. Very often it come into place after the commission of a crime, well after the charges have been filed and well after the completion of forensic examination. Trace evidence can usually take the form of fibers, paint chips, soil, building materials, glass, gunshot residue, seeds, feathers, animal hair, human hair, wood fragments and other material. It has been proved that these substances are usually transferred between individuals during physical contacts and can also be transferred from individuals to environments and from environment to individuals.2 This report shows how complementary analytical techniques ranging from batch injection analysis (BIA) method, based on differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV), scanning electron microscopy/ energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM/EDX), capillary electrophoresis, can been used to identify trace evidence for gun-shot residue. Batch Injection Analysis Batch injection analysis (BIA) method, based on differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) can been use to carry out forensic analysis of lead in gunshot residues (GSR). The design consist of a simple â€Å"J† shaped adaptor which is being used to direct the flux of the analyte injected with a micropipettor onto the hanging mercury drop electrode of any commercial electrode stand. Lifting with adhesive tape is usually selected for field use and pasting of the tape is done on polyethylene screens and stored in capped vials. Sampling is usually done with multiple strips and thus provides coarse mapping of the distribution of the Lead on the shooters hand following the dissolution/extraction step with chloroform/aqueous HCl. Certain volume of this aqueous phase is then injected for few seconds for accumulation of the Lead on the HMDE at a certain volt (vs. Ag/AgCl). A detection limit of 20 ng/mL of Pb(II), outreaching for GSR analysis can be achieved without oxygen r emoval, at a frequency of 20 injections per hour. Quantitative analysis has shown the detection of over 90% of lead residues.3 Scanning electron microscopy/ energy dispersive X-ray analysis Elemental analysis using SEM/EDX can be carried out in order to understand bullet structure and major elemental composition. Datas produced from elemental composition of bullets can be used in deciding the exact methods most appropriate for the identification of bullet hole and the determination of firing distance. Bullets and shots are usually collected from unfired cartridges and subsequently brushed with detergents and cleaned using tap water, distilled water, and acetone. Double-sided carbon tape can be used as a means of mounting jackets, lead cores and lead bullets and shot onto the sample stub on subjection to SEM/EDX analysis. The external surface, cross section of lead core, lead bullet, or lead shot can be subjected to elemental analysis using EDX. The internal surface and cross section of the jacket can also be subjected to elemental analysis in order to understand its structural composition. EDX measurement conditions can be set from the SEM unit with regards to spectral measurement, multi-point measurement, mapping, and display of analysed elements on the SEM monitor. The image data obtained from the SEM can be used as basic data for the EDX, while the setting conditions for the SEM units are automatically transferred to the EDX unit. The function which provides the strongest backup for elemental distribution is the Smart Map. The Smart Map operates by recording the X-ray spectral data for all analysis points on the test sample together with the positions of analysis, thus providing the user to recall valuable data as needed. Backscattered electron imaging mode in SEM is able to reveal layers of metals on the jackets cross-section and its subsequent compositions while on the other hand, EDX analysis is able to reveal the coating elements detected on the external surface of lead bullet.4-5 At the moment, this technique is widely accepted due to the morphological (SEM) and elemental (EDX) determination of the metal residue. Capillary electrophoresis Capillary electrophoresis can be used for the analysis of organic and inorganic components of gunshot residue in order to study sampling methodology, selectivity, reproducibility, quantification and the enhancement of the bulk analysis. A typical P/ACE MDQ Beckman capillary electrophoresis system is being used with polymide bare fused silica capillaries. A diode detector is usually used as a means of carrying out direct UV detection. A temperature of 25oC, with a positive voltage of 30KV and hydrodynamic injection of 5s and 0.5 p.s.i is usually used. The conditioning of new capillaries is usually done by rinsing with ethanol, HCL, NaOH at specific time and temperature. Between runs, the capillary is usually rinsed with deionised water, NaOH, and again with deionised water and background electrolyte at specific times. The sample is usually ejected into the capillary by temporal replacement of one of the buffer reservoir (usually at the anode) with a sample reservoir upon application o f either an electric potential or external pressure for a few seconds. Upon replacement of the buffer reservoir, an electric potential is applied between the capillary and the separation is performed. Optical UV-detection of the separated GSR component can be obtained directly through the capillary wall near the opposite end (usually near the cathode). Swabbing technique has been used as a means of obtaining samples from gunshot. This technique is however not too good in detecting important organic residue such as barium and antimony. Figure 1, shows a typical zone of sampling for gunshot residue.6-7 Figure1 Typical zones of sampling for gunshot residue. (A) web and (B) palm.7 Phase identification: characterization of nanostructured materials Complementary analytical techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), electron microscopies such as TEM SEM, and EDX spectrometry can be employed as a set of tools in characterizing a one-dimensional inorganic nanostructure in order to investigate the crystal structure, particle size distribution, morphology, composition and aggregate state. XRD The technique of XRD can be used to deduce the lattice parameter of inorganic nanostructures which can be used to provide information on the thermal properties of the material, strain state or an analysis of the defect structure. The diffraction pattern of the material can be indexed appropriately if the crystal structure of the material is known. For example, in a cubic system, the d spacing which correspond to each diffraction pattern is related to the lattice parameter a following the equation a2 = d2 / (h2 + k2 + l2) in which hkl are the miller indices. This is however used in indexing the diffraction pattern. This technique is however subject to systematic error in the position of the diffraction peaks and random error in the individual calculation of the lattice materials.8 The calculated lattice parameter value is usually compared with the experimental value and this can further be used for appropriate interpretation of result. SEM/EDX Nanostructured materials can be characterized by SEM integrated with an EDX analyzer in order to determine the particle morphology and chemical composition of the sample. The SEM column forms a focused probe of electrons on the sample while the beam current and probe current are usually adjusted as required. An image is formed by scanning the probe in a raster pattern on the sample, detecting some excited radiations from the sample, and storing the result either as a pattern of varying intensity levels on a cathode ray tube (CRT) screen or an a pattern of digital values in electronic memory for later manipulation and display. SEM images are usually formed by detecting either the secondary (low-energy) electrons emitted from the sample, or the backscattered (high-energy) electrons.9 Secondary electron images can provide information on the sample topography thus revealing information about the grain size distribution of the material. TEM/EDX TEM/EDX investigation of nanostructured materials can provide a more detailed information about the smallest particle. When the selection area diffraction (SAD) pattern is projected onto the viewing screen, we can use this pattern to perform the two most basic imaging operations in the TEM. In order to form an image in TEM, we either use the central spot, or we use some or all of the scattered electrons. The way we choose which electron forms the image is to insert an aperture into the back focal plane of the objective lens, thus blocking out most of the diffraction pattern except that which is visible through the aperture. If the direct beam is selected the resultant image is a bright-field (BF) image and if the scattered electrons are selected then the resultant image is the dark-field (DF) image.10 The dark-field imaging and digitization of particles can be used to extract size distribution of the grains through thresholding and measurement of the projected areas. Enviromental safety: characterization of fine scale particle distributions Appraisal of the fine scale particle distributions emitted from a waste disposal furnace can be carried out using SEM/EDX to investigate the particle morphology, composition and chemistry, while TEM/EDX can be carried out to give a more detailed information about the particle size distribution and SIMS to determine isotopic ratios. SEM/EDX SEM equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometer can be used determine the elemental composition, morphology and chemistry of emitted particle in a waste disposal furnace. In order to determine the emitted particle containing the heavy metals, the sample is subjected to backscattered electron imaging while emitted particle containing salts can be imaged in the secondary electron mode. The detected backscattered electrons originate from the larger volume of the sample than do secondary electrons, and thus form an image of lower resolution. Focusing of a small spot on the high Z area followed by analysis of the X-ray signal with EDX allows the resulting X-ray lines to be detected and the elemental composition determined. TEM/EDX TEM images of the sample which comprises DF and BF can be coupled with EDX analysis and chemical mapping can be carried out. Both DF and BF imaging in TEM can be used to investigate the metal speciation in the fine fraction of the emitted particle furnace. DF imaging and digitization of the particle can be used to extract size distribution through thresholding and measurement of project areas. Elemental composition of the emitted particle could be detected in small aggregates upon analysis by EDX and selected area electron diffraction. SIMS Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) can be used to determine isotopic ratios of the heavy metals from within emitted particles. It operates by switching between masses and it possesses two microfocus ion sources. Sputtering is usually done with a primary O2+ and the intensity controlled by tuning the primary ion beam. The instrument can operate with a mass resolution power (MRP) of 25000.11 REFERENCES [1] Roberto G, Anna P and Salvatore, J Forensic Sci, March 2008, Vol. 53, No. 2. [2] Douglas D, Crime Scene, United States Attorneys Bulletin, 2001Vol. 49 No. 5. [3] Adriana D, Ivano G and R. Gutz, Electroanalysis 2005, 17, No. 2. [4] Hsien-Hui M, and Yen-Lin C, Forensic Science Journal 2006 5:21-34. [5] Toshikazu Y, Sukehiro I, Yoshinori N, Keith S, Readout, 2001 No. 22. [6] Richard A, Jennifer M, Harry E, Background theory and principles of capillary electrophoresis. [7] Ernesto B, Alma L. Revilla V,J. Chromatography A, 1061 (2004) 225-233

The Shawl, by Cynthia Ozick :: The Shawl Essays

The short story, â€Å"The Shawl,† written by Cynthia Ozick, recounts World War II by providing a very vivid image of a Concentration Camp in Nazi Germany. As one reads, he or she can see that Ozick does a wonderful job in portraying the hard times of Jews during the Holocaust. In the first paragraph, we meet the central characters, Rosa, Stella, and Magda as they attempt to endure the fears of life in the Nazi Concentration Camp. Rosa and Stella, her niece, are marching in a line to the camp with Rosa’s daughter, Magda, wrapped and hidden in a shawl from the German soldiers. Unfortunately, at the end, Stella takes Magda’s shawl, and German soldiers kill Magda by throwing her into an electric fence. Throughout the story, Cynthia Ozick has used symbolism like life, protection, and death to make the readers understand the thoughts and feelings of each character which makes the climax really important and meaningful. A symbol is a sign or an object representing something abstract or invisible and more important or complex than the object itself. The author uses symbolism in this story to make the reader visualize the setting. The title, â€Å"The Shawl,† itself is a symbol in this story. Throughout the story, the shawl symbolizes the source of warmth and shelter for little Magda. In the story, Magda is described as â€Å"a squirrel in a nest, safe, no one could ever reach her inside the little house of the shawl’s windings† (Ozick 251). The shawl always behaves as an intimate friend which helps Magda in all her needs and gives support and condolence in danger situations. We also see that the shawl is the reason which helps â€Å"Magda to live longer than expected† despite of her poor health disorders in the Nazi Concentration Camp (Paul 2). As a result, we see that Stella give more important to the shawl, for she knows that it will provide her with all good things in b ad conditions. For Magda, the shawl is more than just protection since she sees the shawl as her â€Å"baby, her pet, and her little sister† (Ozick 252). According to Tery Griffin, a famous American editor and essayist, the shawl entertains her like a friend â€Å"when the wind blew its corners† (Wilson 295). The shawl also represents sustenance, especially for Magda. Ozick describes it as â€Å"a magic shawl that could feed a baby for three days and three nights† (251).

The American Revolutionary War

One of the greatest reasons as to why there was the revolution in the America during the regime of British colonization was as a result of excessive taxation by the British.The British government implemented this idea of excessive tax on the American citizens after realizing that they had a great debt, which resulted from the expenses they incurred during their war with France and India. In the North America the British had many troops at the end of the Indian and the French war.The British government in the long last realized that it had been using a lot of its money to defend its colonies. A big force was required to protect the colonists from the attacks by the Indian troops. At the end of the war the British had a debt worth 140 million pounds.To solve this problem the British government came up with two solutions. Firstly, the British government had the view of strengthening the existing taxation laws together with introduction of additional taxes on the colonists. Such taxes in cluded the: 1773 tea act, 1764 sugar act, and 1765 stamp act.This was to be done so as to enable the government to cater for the cost of the troops which were stationed in the North America. Secondly, the British government gave out new proclamation to prevent the further encroachment of the Indians by the colonists.[1]They believed that this action if is put in place would eliminate the war between the colonists and the Indian, and thus the number of the troops would go down. The first measure by the British government of strengthening the tax laws and introducing additional tax act was to be implemented by passing the Revenue Act of 1764. This act was referred to as the Sugar Act by the colonies.The Act on Sugar really cut down the molasses tax, which was by then the key colonies’ import. The enforcement of the previous tax was not done by the British government.1 With the introduction of the new sugar act brought in strong enforcing methods on the molasses tariffs. Under t he same Revenue Act additional items such as wine, silk and potash were subject to import tax.The American colonists reacted to the new law on the taxes with outrage. They employed all the means and the mechanisms to render such a law useless. The colonial government officials were very corrupt to extend that they allowed the entrance of molasses and other commodities to America without payment of the required import tax on them.The American colonists resisted openly the new act of revenues by the British government as much as they could.A good example on this is the sloop Polly case. Immediately after the law was passed by the parliament, she moved to a port known as Newport carrying molasses load. Despite the fact that, the indication on the tax payment were matching with the new government new revenue act, it was realized later by the port officer that the load was twice the one indicated on the shipment documents. The ship was seized under the new Revenue Act.[2]This was the fir st evidenced American colonists’ defiance on the British government Revenue Act. Many of the American colonists just accepted to pay such taxes under the new Revenue Act as it was inevitable for them.The taxation itself did not case an alarm to the American colonists; however the methods which were employed to collect the taxes by the British government caused anger among the colonists.   Other issues that caused anger among the colonists were that: during the enactment of the Revenue Act concerning the taxes, they were not involved in this process.Also the taxation methods barred the American colonists in engaging in trade. On the second measure by the British government to reduce its burden of the cost they incurred in Indian and the French, was received by the American with a lot of anger and disdain.This was because it limited and interfered with their economic growth. According to the Americans the issue of protecting the Indians encroachment by the colonists had a lit tle chance to be enforced. They had the feeling that, there was no means by which the colonists’ natural movement would be stopped by such proclamation.5The Revenue Act aimed at increasing the Revenue to the British government through increasing the taxes, was the major cause of the revolutionary war in America.The issue of taxation cleared the path towards the revolution. Not only did it bring the issue of resistance, but also it stimulated the thoughts of politics the resulted into the revolution. A good example is that of James Otis who resigned and went to court on the behalf of the merchants of Boston to protest the Assistance Writs.The writs of assistance gave powers to the officials of customs to break into ships, warehouses, and homes that were thought to be carrying any goods which were not transacted in the correct order based on the new Revenue Act.[3]According to Otis the British unwritten constitution fundamentals were violated by these writs. Otis was for the id ea that, despite that it was the British government that passed these writs, the local government was not supposed to enforce them. In his case Otis lost, but the writs issue which the revenue act enforcement brought forth resulted to be an expanding colonial list of grievances against the British colonial government.[1] Reich Jerome. British Friends of the American Revolution, London, Macmillan, 1998, pp. 121 Reich Jerome. British Friends of the American Revolution, London, Macmillan, 1998, pp. 19[2] Revolutionary War. History Central. Copyright Multi-Educator , 1998, Retrieved on 12th January 2009 from http://www.historycentral.com/Revolt/index.html5 On the American Revolution. The American Inquisition. Retrieved on 12th January 2009 from, http://americaninquisition.blogspot.com/2008/05/on-american-revolution.html[3] Hatch Louis. The Administration of the American Revolutionary Army, London, Longman Green and Co., 1994, pp. 70   

Links

What is our government’s stance on the genetic engineering of humans? According to the links consulted, the government of the United States is cautiously allowing some genetic engineering research to proceed, such as gene transfer research seeking to correct or treat disease.There does not appear to be a coherent policy on permitting trait selection for reproduction purposes though ethical questions of this nature are starting to be asked.   President Bush, has said â€Å"Our children are gifts to be loved and protected, not products to be designed and manufactured â€Å", which is certainly a more definitive stance than is present in regulation or law presently, and so appears opposed to genetic engineering for the purpose of selecting traits of offspring.http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/04/20020410-4.htmlSummary of Regulatory environment.What is our government’s stance on cloning?At present, there isn’t any specific law banning Human cloning per se.   However, due to the extreme public response and with President Bush’s ban on federal funding for such research, it could be said that the government is hostile toward human cloning.This stance is based on the ethical consideration of Human Life,   and was summed up by President Bush:I believe all human cloning is wrong, and both forms of cloning ought to be banned, for the following reasons. First, anything other than a total ban on human cloning would be unethical. Research cloning would contradict the most fundamental principle of medical ethics, that no human life should be exploited or extinguished for the benefit of another. (Applause.)Yet a law permitting research cloning, while forbidding the birth of a cloned child, would require the destruction of nascent human life. Secondly, anything other than a total ban on human cloning would be virtually impossible to enforce. Cloned human embryos created for research would be widely available in laboratories and emb ryo farms. Once cloned embryos were available, implantation would take place. Even the tightest regulations and strict policing would not prevent or detect the birth of cloned babies.Third, the benefits of research cloning are highly speculative. Advocates of research cloning argue that stem cells obtained from cloned embryos would be injected into a genetically identical individual without risk of tissue rejection. But there is evidence, based on animal studies, that cells derived from cloned embryos may indeed be rejected.Yet even if research cloning were medically effective, every person who wanted to benefit would need an embryonic clone of his or her own, to provide the designer tissues. This would create a massive national market for eggs and egg donors, and exploitation of women's bodies that we cannot and must not allow.I stand firm in my opposition to human cloning. And at the same time, we will pursue other promising and ethical ways to relieve suffering through biotechnol ogy. This year for the first time, federal dollars will go towards supporting human embryonic stem cell research consistent with the ethical guidelines I announced †¦..President’s Bioethics Council report on CloningWhat are some possible new genetic modifications we are likely to see soon?  We are likely to see an explosion of gm crops and animal food products and even ‘biopharm’ ( Animals designed so they produce drugs or other chemicals) breeds of certain species.   For example, according to the FDA, â€Å"new versions of familiar foods–ones that are custom â€Å"built† to improve quality or remove unwanted traits. Insect-resistant apples, long-lasting raspberries, and potatoes that absorb less fat are among the more than 50 plant products under study now that are likely to reside soon on grocers' shelves.†According to press reports, genetic researchers studying the limited gene pools of   isolated communities such as the Amish a nd Mennonites are accumulating valuable insight into the genetic markers of a number of diseases including Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.   This research may bring about numerous genetic treatments for these diseases.Genetic research in limited Gene pool populations is yielding tremendous research benefits. From the Associated Press.University of Virginia discusses future uses of BiotechnologyWhat are some laws that may be introduced to handle the legal issues of genetic engineering? Look at both Human and agriculture laws.Laws or regulations on labeling, bio-containment and review processes for genetically modified (transgenic) animals and plants are likely in the near future.   In Canada herbicide-resistant canola is becoming a â€Å"super-weed† in prairie areas.   Stricter farming regulations and requirements the GM crop must meet are likely to result.The US Senate moved in a near unanimous manner to begin the process of preventing the world portrayed in the film Gatt ica from becoming a reality by passing S306 â€Å"Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2005†Ã‚   Which would prevent discrimination in employment or insurance on genetic basis.   Something of this magnitude probably needs to be approached as an amendment though. Legislation can be repealed.   Currently this measure is waiting on action in the House of Representatives.   The bill is supported by the NIH and by the whitehouse.Other laws designed to prohibit the traffic and trade of human beings or organisms based on human genetic code, as well as attempts to create human/animal hybrids are probably to be expected, and are on the Policy agenda of the President’s advisory Committee for Bioethics.Director of National Human Genome Research Institute comment on Senate Bill.Contains the targeted legislative goals of the Presidential Administration’s Council on BioEthics.JOURNALStopping cloning or genetic engineering would be nearly impossible now.   The ‘idea’ is already established, and it has been shown that â€Å"it can be done.†Ã‚   Suppression of this technology would require a worldwide coalition more effective than the current anti-proliferation mechanisms set up for nuclear technology.   After World War II and the power of Nuclear weapons began to be understood, the United States attempted to suppress the information to prevent other nations from developing their own programs.   One after another of the allies developed their own weapons following the Soviet Union’s Development.Suppression has been mostly successful only with nations volunteering to remain non-nuclear or accepting large economic rewards for remaining so.   However three (possibly five) nations have developed weapons programs (Pakistan, India, North Korea) in the last 6 years; additionally,   Israel is suspected of having undeclared weapons for some time, and Iran has announced the intent to develop a peaceful nuclear progr am for power production, which some suspect would be a cover for a weapons program.   Research into this area by 3rd world countries is made easier for knowing that the result is attainable.The difficulties in monitoring become apparent when one considers that the world was taken by surprise when both Pakistan and India announced their new capabilities within months of each other.   The United States admitted to being flatfooted and having no intelligence at all about the developments.   Recent experience in Iraq in attempting to track and account for Sadaam’s mobile chemical laboratories and work centers show that similar facilities used for genetic research could be very difficult to find and shut down.The frightening thing about technology is that humanity typically utilizes it in conflict before turning it to more peaceful purposes; this has been true of all our history, but is especially characteristic of modern technology.   Interchangable parts, making mass pro duction possible, was first used to produce thousands of rifles.   Rockets were first used to deliver explosives, long before they were used for exploration.   Computers were first used for calculating artillery ballistics, and then for assisting in simulations of various weapons effects (and still are used for this).Aircraft, though initially a curiosity, were quickly developed from little more than kites to devices that have come to dominate modern warfare in a space of two decades   and continue to become more sophisticated in both military and civilian applications.   Genetic Engineering, has so far been pacific in its uses in the 21st century but the closely related eugenics sciences, especially in Nazi Germany, have ominous implications for the mis-use of genetic science.   Having direct access to genetic materials of humanity and other organisms, some may attempt to tailor disease organisms to attack certain genotypes in an effort to eliminate an ethnic enemy or â⠂¬Å"inferior.†Ã‚   Doubly troubling is the emergence of useful nanotechnology; together nanotechnology and genetic engineering could create complementary and wonderful   advances or equally horrible and devastating weapons that can wreak havoc not only on human life but the entire biosphere and the current balance of species in the environment.Indeed, genetic engineering may be a difficult test of humanity’s maturity.   Even peaceful uses require the utmost scrutiny. Because we don’t know all the rules in this field yet, unintended consequences are certain to occur.   This field will require the best from our scientists, researchers, and regulatory agents to ensure that the promise of the technology is realized while minimizing or eliminating its dangers.